MCRP 12-10B.1, page 354

(13) Standard Russian military unit configurations were inappropriate for urban combat. Typical Russian army unit organizations, oriented to open spaces and mechanized operations, proved to be inadequate for urban combat. They eventually had to adopt specially configured assault teams that included, among other assets, significantly greater firepower and engineer assets. Essentially, they moved towards a better combined arms team. (14) The Russians found their helicopters to be far too vulnerable to rooftop snipers and ambushes in the urban setting. While Russian doctrine had long specified the capture of a building from the top-down, it became apparent in Grozny that this tactic was too expensive in terms of helicopter losses. The Chechens made effective use of snipers and RPG-equipped ambush teams to damage or destroy helicopters supporting Russian ground forces. d. Fires. (1) Artillery was invaluable in the direct fire mode. The Russians found artillery, to include rocket launchers and mortars, to be very effective for direct fire against point targets , usually at ranges of 150 to 200 meters. (2) Obscurants (smoke, white phosphorous, tear gas) are especially useful in urban combat. The Russians used significant amounts of smoke and white phosphorus to mask the movement of forces. Every fourth or fifth artillery or mortar round was either smoke or WP. WP also had a toxic effect, easily penetrating Chechen protective masks. (3) The Chechens effectively used RPGs against helicopters. The Chechens made effect use of ambush teams equipped with RPGs to engage Russian helicopters, either by damaging or destroying the helicopter or simply prohibiting helicopterborne operations. (4) Air defense guns (i.e., ZSU-23-4) were valuable in suppressing ground targets. The Russians found air defense guns effective against multi-story buildings because they had sufficient elevation to hit targets in the upper stories. Air defense guns became a primary asset in the Russian special assault groups. (5) The Russians determined that overwhelming firepower can make-up for organizational and tactical deficiencies in the short run if collateral damage is disregarded. Whenever Russian military units proved incapable of effective urban operations, the Russians simply fell back on massive, overwhelming firepower to reduce a strong point. It was through the use of excessive, unrestrained firepower, and a complete lack of regard for collateral damage, that finally enabled the Russians to gain control of Grozny. (6) The Chechens negated Russian supporting fires by "hugging" Russian units. Whenever possible, Chechen fighters adopted the tactic of staying as physically close to Russian units as possible, so that the Russians could not employ supporting arms without the risk of injuring their own troops. MCWP 3-35 .3 J-6